Chapter+15+Avoidance+ANSWERS

** Avoidance ** ** ANSWERS **
 * Chapter 15 **


 * 1. Extinction of cued avoidance.**


 * a.** Please diagram extinction of cued avoidance.


 * ANSWER**

**Escape**



**Avoidance**

**Extinction of Escape**



**Extinction of Avoidance**


 * b.** What’s the common confusion?

The confusion is that people erroneously think extinction of cued avoidance involves not presenting the warning stimulus. **Reminder: In extinction, the response must still occur, but no longer produce the outcome.** Therefore, the only difference between a cued avoidance contingency and extinction of cued avoidance is that the Before Condition in the avoidance contingency CONTINUES to occur even though the response occurred.
 * ANSWER:**


 * REVIEW:** Please write out the definitions for discriminative stimulus (SD) and warning stimulus.


 * ANSWER:**
 * Discriminative stimulus (SD) –** A stimulus in the presence of which a particular response will be reinforced or punished.
 * Warning stimulus –** A stimulus that precedes an aversive condition and thus becomes a learned aversive condition.


 * 2.** SD versus a warning stimulus


 * a.** Compare and Contrast


 * ANSWER:**
 * **Similarities:** Both of these stimuli are present before the response and they both increase the likelihood that a particular response will occur.
 * **Crucial Differences:** An SD signals the differential availability of a reinforcer or aversive condition. So in other words, the presence of an SD means that a specific outcome //may// occur ONLY IF the response occurs (the SD does NOT make the outcome more reinforcing). In contrast, a warning stimulus is a 'before condition' that makes the 'after condition' more reinforcing (the warning stimulus does NOT guarantee the availability of the outcome). A warning stimulus is a before condition that is a learned aversive stimulus.

**stimulus** ||
 * =  ||= **Sd** ||= **Warning**
 * = **Precedes the**
 * response?** ||= Yes ||= Yes ||
 * = **Signals differential**
 * availability of a**
 * reinforcer or aversive**
 * condition?** ||= Yes ||= No ||
 * = **Is a learned aversive**
 * before condition?** ||= No ||= Yes ||


 * b.** What is the common confusion in terms of describing the warning stimulus as a signal?
 * ANSWER:** People tend to say that the warning stimulus "signals" that an aversive condition will occur if the response does not occur. We should not use the word "signals" as it implies that the rat "understands" that if he does not press the lever, he will be shocked in three seconds. The warning stimulus is a type of before condition that is a learned aversive condition whose contingent termination reinforces the response.


 * c.** Diagram discriminated cued avoidance.
 * ANSWER:**

**Avoidance** **-** **Extinction of Avoidance**




 * d.** Using the example that you’ve provided, please explain the differences between an SD and a warning stimulus using the terminology that you had provided in your answer to 30a.


 * ANSWER:** In the examples provided, there is a clear distinction between the presence of the light and the presence of the buzzer. While both stimuli occur before the response occurs, they serve different functions. The light serves to signal the differential availability of reinforcement in this example; when it is on, pressing the lever will be reinforced by prevention of a shock in 3 seconds and the termination of the buzzer. When the light is off, the shock will continue to occur in 3 seconds and the buzzer will stay on regardless of the occurrence of the lever press, thus the response is extinguished. In addition, the buzzer’s termination is contingent upon the lever press (when the light is on), whereas the light’s presence is not affected contingent upon the lever press.


 * 3. Avoidance of an aversive condition vs. punishment by the presentation of an aversive condition.**


 * a.** Be able to construct, describe, and explain the following table illustrating the differences between these two concepts.
 * || **Avoidance** || **Punishment** ||
 * **Involves presentation of an aversive condition** || **Yes** || **Yes** ||
 * **Presentation is contingent** || **No** || **Yes** ||
 * **Prevention is contingent** || **Yes** || **No** ||
 * **Change in the frequency of the response** || **Increase** || **Decrease** ||


 * b.** Illustrate these differences with two examples from the Skinner box.


 * ANSWER:**


 * Punishment**




 * Avoidance of an aversive condition**


 * c.** What’s the common confusion when students compare these two contingencies provided in these examples?

As usual, there is a failure to **distinguish** between these two contingencies. The confusion here can go two ways: first, the students can mislabel a punishment contingency as an avoidance contingency, and secondly students can mislabel an avoidance contingency as a punishment contingency. In the first confusion, students analyzing a punishment contingency often make the mistake of saying that the rat can avoid the shock by //not pressing the lever//. Thus, non-lever presses are reinforced using the erroneously labeled “avoidance contingency” (which is really a punishment contingency). The second confusion occurs when students analyzing an avoidance contingency say that the rat’s “response” of //not pressing the lever// is being punished. Thus non-lever presses are punished using the erroneously labeled “punishment contingency” (which is really an avoidance contingency). In both of these confusions, the students are failing to apply the dead-man test. They erroneously believe that //non-lever presses// are either punished or reinforced, when they should be focusing on the actual “real” behaviors (those that a dead-man CAN’T do). If the student prudently applies the dead-man test, these confusions will be avoided.
 * ANSWER:**


 * d.** In what special case do these two contingencies seem to be essentially the same? (refer to this chapter’s AES to answer this question)

These two contingencies seem to be the same when there are **only** two response options available which are mutually exclusive (meaning if one occurs, the other cannot occur). For example, in a “forced choice” procedure where a rat is forced to jump from a home platform to one of two other receiving platforms, and one of those two receiving platforms is shocked.The rat has experienced jumping on both platforms (so he has been shocked contingent on jumping on the shock platform and has avoided shock contingent on jumping on the no-shock platform). Now, when the rat jumps to the no-shock platform, it is unclear whether he does it because jumping on the shocked platform has been punished in the past, resulting in a decreased frequency of his jumping on that platform or because jumping on the no-shock platform has resulted in avoidance of the shock, resulting in an increased frequency of his jumping onto the no-shock platform.
 * ANSWER:**


 * 4. Avoidance of the loss of a reinforcer and (PENALTY) punishment by the removal of a reinforcer.**


 * a.** Be able to construct, describe, and explain the following table illustrating the differences between these two concepts.
 * || **Avoidance** || **Penalty** ||
 * **Involves removal of a reinforcer** || **Yes** || **Yes** ||
 * **Removal of a reinforcer is contingent** || **No** || **Yes** ||
 * **Keeping of a reinforcer is contingent** || **Yes** || **No** ||
 * **Change in the frequency of the response** || **Increase** || **Decrease** ||

Reinforcement
 * b.** Illustrate these differences with two examples from the Skinner box.
 * ANSWER:** ** Penalty with Maintaining Sr **
 * b.** Illustrate these differences with two examples from the Skinner box.
 * ANSWER:** ** Penalty with Maintaining Sr **


 * c.** Using the examples that you’ve provided, explain the differences between these two contingencies using the terminology that you provided in 32a.

While both the penalty and avoidance contingencies involve the removal of food, only in the penalty contingency is the **//removal//** contingent upon the lever press. In the avoidance contingency, if the lever press never occurs the food will still be removed. Conversely, in the avoidance contingency **//keeping//** the food is contingent upon the lever press. Whereas in the penalty contingency, if the lever press never occurs, the food will be continue to be kept. Finally, the penalty contingency results in a decrease in the frequency of the lever press, while the avoidance contingency results in an increase in the frequency of the lever press.
 * ANSWER:**


 * 5. Avoidance and the Two Factor Theory of Avoidance.**


 * a.** Provide a diagram of **cued** avoidance including the component escape and avoidance contingencies as well as a diagram of the pairing between the original aversive outcome and the warning stimulus.


 * ANSWER:**

**Escape** **Avoidance**

**Pairing Procedure**


 * b.** Explain why we say that the only role of an avoidance contingency is its function as a pairing procedure. (HINT: refer to the Two Factor Theory of Avoidance)

According to the Two Factor Theory of Avoidance, the warning stimulus becomes a learned aversive stimulus through pairing with the original aversive stimulus; and the so-called avoidance response is //really reinforced by the contingent termination of the warning stimulus// and NOT by the avoidance of the original aversive stimulus.
 * ANSWER:**


 * c.** Discuss the importance of this theory with respect to explaining the avoidance contingency

This theory is important because when analyzing the avoidance contingency, it seems that we get something from nothing; pressing the lever when there is no shock and receiving no shock does not seem to fit with our model of a reinforcement contingency. According to the Two Factor Theory of Avoidance, avoiding the shock doesn’t have much to do with affecting the frequency of the lever press, but it is actually escape from the learned aversive warning stimulus (the buzzer) that reinforces the response.
 * ANSWER:**


 * d.** So, why do we even include the shock in the avoidance contingency?

The shock is necessary in altering the value of the neutral stimulus so that it becomes a learned aversive stimulus and can therefore act as a warning stimulus.
 * ANSWER:**


 * e.** Provide a diagram of **non-cued** avoidance (also known as Sidman avoidance) including the component escape and avoidance contingencies as well as a diagram of the pairing between the original aversive outcome and the warning stimulus.


 * ANSWER:**






 * 6. Molar vs. Molecular theory**


 * a.** Define and give an example of the molar law of effect.

For example, in non-cued (Sidman) avoidance it is the overall reduction in the frequency of shocks per hour that reinforces the rats avoidance response.
 * ANSWER:** The molar law of effect states that it is the **//overall increase//** in reinforcement or the **//overall reduction//** in aversive stimulation that controls the occurrence of a response.


 * b.** Define and give an example of the molecular law of effect.

It is important to think about the molecular law of effect in terms of the two factor theory of avoidance. When the rat presses the lever, it immediately terminates the learned aversive stimulus, the warning stimulus. It is that molecular result that reinforces the lever press, not the overall reduction in the frequency of shocks per hour, in other words, not the delayed avoidance of a higher number of shocks. //(We can also analyze the non-cued avoidance in terms of the molecular law of effect. For example, in non-cued avoidance, the monkey gets a shock every 20 seconds unless it presses the lever to postpone the shock another 20 seconds (with no added warning stimulus). Typically, the monkey will wait 15-18 seconds before pressing the lever. The stimuli that come with not having just pressed the lever (for 15-18 seconds) have been paired with shock and so become learned aversive stimuli. According to the molecular analysis, escape from these stimuli is what reinforces the lever press, not avoidance of the shock.)//
 * ANSWER:** The molecular law of effect states that it is the **//immediate likelihood//** of a reinforcer or an aversive condition that controls the occurrence of the response. For example, it is the **//immediate//** **//presentation//** of shock that reduces frequency of a rat’s lever press and not the overall increase in the number of shocks per hour.


 * c.** Compare and Contrast these two theories and give your preference for either the molar vs. molecular theory.

While both of these theories propose to explain behavior in terms of its consequences, they differ in how they analyze these consequences. The molar law of effect analyzes consequences from an //overall// perspective, taking into account the overall **amount or** **rate** at which reinforcers and aversive outcomes occur after behavior. On the other hand, the molecular theory analyzes the consequences as they occur //immediately// after a specific response.
 * ANSWER:**